The continent of Africa has seen an unfair share of repressive political regimes and social struggles over the past 50 years. First came the battles for independence against various colonial rulers, but once the former colonies gained their right of self-government, too many fell under the rule of corrupt governments and military dictatorships. One common force in many of these nations' social and political struggles has been the presence of great musical artists who have chosen to champion the rights of the people, and a number of new releases spotlight the important role that music has played in both the tribulations and triumphs in the ongoing turmoil in some of Africa's most prominent nations.

Perhaps the best documented battle between artist and government took place over the course of the 70's, 80's and 90's in Nigeria, Africa's most populous nation, between the various military governments and the great Nigerian musician Fela Anikulapo Kuti.

Nigeria gained its independence from Great Britain in 1960, but the task of uniting its some 250 different ethnic groups under a democratic government had fallen apart by 1966 resulting in the first military takeover. Then the following year, longstanding and often bloody disputes between its Muslim and Christian populations (specifically between the ethnic Hausa and Igbo groups) led to the outbreak of the brutal three-year civil war in the eastern part of the country then known as Biafra.

During the 1970s, due to the development of its huge oil reserves, Nigeria had the 33rd highest per-capita income in the world, but the political leadership was still under military control, and the massive amounts of oil revenue were diverted into the pockets of a small group of military rulers and elite citizens. There were various attempts to return the country to civilian rule, but each attempt was ultimately undermined by a military coup. The most notorious of the dictators, Sani Abacha who ruled during most of the 90's, was accused of diverting billions of dollars into the pockets of his associates. By 1997, Nigeria's per capita income had dropped to the 13th poorest in the world despite being among the world's top ten oil producers.

During much of the 60's, Fela was living in Great Britain and the United States, where he was greatly influenced by the music of James Brown, and the ideas of Malcolm X and Martin Luther King. Upon his return to Lagos in 1970, he became deeply troubled by the war in Biafra and the rising level of government oppression that resulted from it. Fela introduced his signature style of music--called "Afro-Beat"--which went in consort with his ideas about pan-Africanism where countries would no longer exist, and all Africans would be united under the banner of Africa.

Fela's uncompromising anti-government stance in both his music and public statements, as well as his promotion of a controversial lifestyle that included open smoking of marijuana and the marriage to all twenty-seven of his background singers, resulted in regular harassment and imprisonment by the authorities. By the time of Fela's death from AIDS in 1997, he had become a legendary figure in the minds of the underclass, especially in the sprawling city of Lagos, where he was based. After his death, an estimated one million people lined the streets to watch his funeral procession pass.

For people just becoming interested in Fela, his discography, with more than 60 titles, can certainly be intimidating. However, the newly released box set from Wrasse Records, Music Is the Weapon: The Best of Fela Kuti, is an excellent place to start. Consisting of two audio CDs and the indispensable DVD Music Is the Weapon, this set gives a vivid depiction of both the man and his music.

The two audio CDs contain several of Fela's most famous songs, including "Zombie," "Shuffering and Shmiling," and the fantastic "Sorrow Tears and Blood." The music is a wonderfully infectious and intense mix of African rhythms and James Brown soul influence all played by a thirty-odd member band fronted by the magnetic presence of Fela, who alternates between singing, and playing saxophone, keyboards, and percussion. Since most of the tracks break the ten-minute mark, this music is not for the attention-span deficient, but people who give it even half a chance will be absolutely hypnotized by its rhythms and riveted by its power.

Music Is the Weapon is considered to be the definitive Fela documentary. Filmed in 1982 against the backdrop of mounting police pressure against him, the documentary presents the man at the height of his artistic and popular influence. In interviews conducted in his Kalakuta Republic compound and in concert footage all taped at his Shrine nightclub located in Ikeja, a violent industrial suburb of Lagos, Fela is preserved on film as an incredibly charismatic and iconoclastic figure. The film also provides powerful footage of Nigeria and the tumultuous, sprawling city of Lagos, described at the time as the most violent city in the world. Even more than his recordings, the film gives insight into the person Fela was, and the sociopolitical troubles that he openly challenged even though the consequences were dire (including the 1977 raid which led to his skull being fractured and his 80-year-old mother being thrown out of a window, which ultimately caused her death). The Music Is the Weapon box set is a must for anyone interested in this pivotal international artist.

Another of Nigeria's best loved and most influential artists is King Sunny Ade, who has been a key figure in Nigeria, but whose social activism, in the form of establishing arts and music foundations, has been used in a more constructive co-operational manner than Fela's firebrand method.

Ade came into international prominence during the early 80's through his affiliation with Mango Records, a subsidiary of Island, and is known as the king of Juju music, a more traditional style involving complex polyrhythms built around guitar-driven compositions.

Ade has been on a month-long US tour that will hopefully reignite his career here, and the recent Synchro Series (Indigedisc) recording provides a great place for new fans to start their immersion in juju. The record, which was released in 2003 but is gaining more attention with Ade's tour, is the combined re-release of two of Ade's early 80's records, which were previously only available in Nigeria. Less aggressive and confrontational than Fela's Afro-Beat style, the sound is a warm, shimmering mass of guitars, drums, and enticing vocals that bears some resemblance to reggae. Fans who are unable to catch Ade's current tour can still enjoy his music through Synchro Series.

Another African nation in the midst of a highly publicized struggle against an oppressive leader is Zimbabwe, where Robert Mugabe, who 25 years ago was elected as the first black president of the previously white-minority dominated Rhodesia, has come under increasing international disdain for alleged election-rigging and often violent suppression of criticism. In a situation parallel to Nigeria's downward economic spiral, there has also been tremendous economic upheaval with rising inflation and food shortages, leading to greater strain on the nation's population. Meanwhile against this backdrop, two towering figures in Zimbabwean music have new releases to bring the world's attention to their country's struggles.

Thomas Mapfumo is a legend in Zimbabwe and through his open challenges to the leaders of his country over the better part of 30 years, can be closely compared with Fela Kuti. Back in the 70's, he became wildly popular as the voice of protest against the leaders of white Rhodesia, which led to his imprisonment in 1979. More recently he has lambasted the government of Mugabe and the ongoing corruption. In a painfully cyclical turn of events, despite his popularity in his native country, Mapfumo's music is being banned in Zimbabwe once again, and the man himself has been forced to live in exile in Oregon. His new release is entitled Rise Up and is only available as a digital download from Calabash Music's website. Though this method of distribution may seem awkward to some, the idea is that Mapfumo can sell directly to his fans in a way that bypasses the usual distribution network as he evenly splits all profits with Calabash.

While, Mapfumo can be compared to Fela in his strident messages of liberation and social justice, musically they are quite different. His chimurenga music, which relies heavily on the mbira (a thumb piano) is lilting and melodic, full of almost gentle serpentine rhythms and seems to have more of a base in guitar riffs than Fela's funk and soul foundation. Mapfumo's vocal delivery is also quite understated even if his messages aren't, though someone who doesn't know the Shona language might not be aware of the lyrics' cutting edge. The effect is an undulating, entrancing style which is both thought-provoking and soothing, and although his exile in the US is quite sad, the silver lining for American fans is that Mapfumo may be able to tour here more frequently, and his live shows are something to behold.

Oliver Mtukudzi is another prominent Zimbabwean artist who has been drawn into his country's political controversy through the attempts of the ruling Zanu PF party to co-opt his music for its own purposes, without his permission. As a result, Mtukudzi has unwillingly become politicized and has had to make public declarations of his independence and his belief in a united, free Zimbabwe. One of the country's top selling artists, he has never shied away from heavy lyrical topics (especially AIDS) but he has been forced to defend his reputation against false accusations of involvement with the Mugabe government.

In the wake of this controversy comes Mtukudzi's new record, Nhava (released on Heads Up International), which gives a great view into his signature style. Mtukudzi was a band mate of Mapfumo during the late 70's, and there is certainly some similarity between the two artists beyond the fact that they both sing in the Shona language. However, Mtukudzi's music has a more contemporary feel and will sound less exotic to untrained western ears. There are multiple influences incorporated into this record, but the sound is certainly original. Most songs are built around an acoustic guitar intro and then blossom into full band arrangements with prominent background vocals and intricate instrumentation. The sound on Nhava is brighter and probably more commercial than Mapfumo's Rise Up, although it still has great lyrical levity.

If Nigeria and Zimbabwe represent countries where great potential for peace and democracy have disintegrated into social upheaval in the wake of government repression and corruption, South Africa represents the hope of what could be. In 1993, after over fifty years of the racist apartheid system's institutional discrimination, South Africa embarked on a new era of social equality that despite great problems with crime, poverty, and the AIDS epidemic, has been a model for what a stable democratic government can become.

One of the best known South African musical exports is the remarkable vocal group Ladysmith Black Mambazo, which formed in 1974 and came to international attention through their appearance on Paul Simon's groundbreaking 1986 Graceland record. Since then, they have become world renowned for their distinct vocal style which combines traditional Zulu singing with the influence of Christian church choirs.

Their most recent release, No Boundaries (Heads Up International), finds them collaborating with the English Chamber Orchestra to create a unique hybrid of their style, known as isicathamiya music, and western classical music. This is a record that will appeal to a lot of older listeners as well as people who like their music to be on the lighter side. Joseph Shabalala and the rest of Ladysmith Black Mambazo are in excellent form as always, and there are individual tracks that work brilliantly, including "Homeless," which was included on Graceland, as well as a lovely version of Bach's "Jesu, Joy of Man's Desiring." Generally, the better tracks on No Boundaries are those where the orchestra is kept in the background; the record sounds forced when the group sings songs that are more western in origin. Still, No Boundaries shows the incredible level of international respect that Ladysmith Black Mambazo has earned and just how far their journey from the rural apartheid-era townships has taken them.

The multimedia of social and political problems that plagued even the most developed nations on the African continent are not likely to disappear. However, even if struggle appears to be in the foreseeable future for so many African nations, it is also assured that great music will be there as a window into the turmoil and hopefully as a potent weapon against it.

-Andy Smith